Hello,

Does anyone know the average viscosity (in cp) of a large-scale cell culture or microbial culture?

Thank you,
JR

Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago – RIC has unveiled to the public the woman with an artificial, bionic arm. Her arm was amputated at the shoulder, in a traffic accident. Today, after installing the bionic prosthesis, she can, for example, open the closet with her thoughts. She can control the number of complex movements, and it opens many opportunities for those who have lost limbs. All this is achievable symbiosis surgery and technology.

Technology of "bionic arm" is possible because of two facts. The first is the existence of a motor center in the brain (the area that controls voluntary muscle movements), which always sends control signals, even in the event when there are no muscles that can be controlled. Another factor is based on the fact that, during the amputation, not all the nerves that control the movements of the hand are removed. According to that, when the arm is amputated, the nerve endings remain alive, ending in the shoulder, and they simply have no place to send the information. If these nerve endings are diverted to the active muscle groups, then the person thinks of command "open closet" and sends the appropriate signals to the nerves that are supposed to communicate with the hand. These signals then end of active muscle groups instead on the part that is, relatively speaking, dead.

The procedure is simple redirection. Therefore, the developed procedure called targeted muscle reinnervation - TMR.

Muscles and electrodes

Basically, the surgeons access the nerve endings that are found in the shoulder, and control arm movements. Then, without nerve damage, the nerve endings are diverted to the active muscle group. In the described of bionic arm, surgeons from RIC connect nerve endings to the chest muscle group. It takes several months for the nerves to connect to these muscles and become an integrated unit. The end result is a reversal of control signals: motor center in the brain sends signals to the hand through nerve pathways, as it always was. But, instead ending in the shoulder, the signals end at the chest.

In order to use these signals to control the bionic arm, electrodes are placed on the surface of the chest muscles. Each electrode controls one of the six motors that move the joints of the prosthesis. When you think of the command "open hand", the brain sends a signal to "open hand" to the appropriate nerve which is now located on the chest. When the nerve endings receive the signal, the chest muscle is activated which results in its contraction.

When the chest muscle contracts, the electrode on the muscle is activated to detect and forward the command to the appropriate motor to open the hand prosthesis. Since every nerve ending is integrated in different part of chest muscle, a person with a bionic prosthesis can run all six engines at the same time which produces quite accurate movements of the prosthesis. The disadvantage is the fact that the prosthesis is heavy as a result of additional engines that allow greater freedom of movement.

An interesting fact is that if you touch the skin of the chest where the redirected nerves the arm, one feels like his hand is touched!
Nearly natural movements

The next step is to develop ways to get the signals from the prosthetic fingers to the nerves in the chest and further, to the brain so you can feel the pressure, cold or heat.

Besides the already mentioned prosthesis, another patient had prototype bionic arm, which was later additionally improved. Artificial hand project was made by order of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), by the name of “Revolutionizing Prosthetics 2009-RP”. A team of scientists has produced the first integrated prosthetic arm that can be controlled in a natural way, which provides sensory feedback and provides eight direction movements, which is now far better then the latest prosthetic limbs.

Engineering center mentioned has completed a system of artificial limbs, which includes training for patients using this limbs (the virtual environment), as well as the system of recording movements and control signals during clinical trials. All this has led to improvements in functional verification, such as the possibility of repositioning the finger during various operations - for example, taking a credit card out of pocket and free movement of limbs close to natural gait.

This natural behavior and integrated sensory feedback have been achieved by using TMR method described above. You need to know that this method is based on the transfer of the remaining nerves from an amputated arm to the unused part of the muscle around the injury. With TMR technique, nerves are transferred from shoulders to the patient's chest. Using the electrodes on reinnervated sites the natural control of the prosthesis is enabled. This gives a much more natural way to control the prosthesis and natural sense of touch and grip strength.

The above advanced systems will be greatly enhanced by using IMES devices. Scientists are now working on the next generation prototype called PROTO 2, which will have more than 26 stages of movement and the strength and speed of movement will be approximate to capabilities of the human hand. This is combined with more than 80 individual sensory elements used as a feedback for touch, temperature and position of the hands. We should also mention the construction of a new unit for the shoulder and wrist movements, all of which should be integrated into the new prosthesis.

DARPA is an ambitious effort to create the most complex medical and rehabilitative technologies for the benefit of people. Doctors and scientists included in this projects are excited to be part of a team that has the ability to positively affect the quality of life of those who, by coincidence, have lost an arm or hand.

Hello all,
Its great to read posts and threads related to Biotechnology and they are of great help to a certain extent. I am 2nd year Biotechnology student in a private university in India. I would like to know about list of institutes and companies that provide research training for undergrad students in summer or winter.

In order to manipulate with genetic material, it is often necessary to have certain carriers of genetic material which would allow its incorporation into the cell.Vectors are the carriers that we use when inserting genetic material into the cell. A great number of different vectors and various methods for entering the gene into the cells have been developed. We distinguish between viral and non-viral vectors:

Viral vectors

Most frequently used viral vectors are those based on adenoviruses, retroviruses, lentiviruses, adeno-associated viruses or herpes simplex virus.

Retroviruses: Most protocols for gene transfer use retroviral vectors. For use in oncology, the ability of retroviruses to integrate into the dividing cells, showed to be an advantage. Attempts of ex vivo transfer proved to be very successful. However, there are several drawbacks. Retroviruses have small genetic capacity of only eight kilobases and serum complement can inactivate them. Currently achieved titer is low in comparison with that that should be achieved for treatment of large tumors. A patient may receive only the limited amount of viruses.

Adenoviruses: Limitations when working with retrovirus imposed the need to find other vectors that could be used with more success in gene therapy. Attention is focused on adenoviruses, as it was revealed that they possess dual DNA so more effective transduction of different cell types is possible regardless of the mitotic stage of the cells. These vectors can be produced in higher titers than retroviruses. Studies have shown that with a minimal amount of viruses, a sufficient level of expression in most tissue scan be achieved, except in haematopoietic cells. Application of the adenoviral vector was first tested in the treatment of nontumorous disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, but it is also in use in cancer therapy. For example, it is in the process of exploring whether there is the possibility of their use when inserting the gene for HSV-TK in patients with tumors of brain and liver, and tumor-suppressor p53 gene in patients with tumors of lungs, head and neck. Although adenoviruses showed good properties for use in gene therapy, they are not without drawbacks. The presence of unmodified viral genes in recombinant virus can trigger an immune response to these antigens, and consequently against the stations that carry it. So far, a great number of viruses with unique properties useful for applications in gene therapy has been explored. Some of them are herpes simplex virus, Avipox virus, Vaccinia virus and Baculovirus.

Non-viral vectors and the "naked" DNA

One of the most promising areas of research is searching for non-viral vectors. They allow the transfer of therapeutic genes into cells without using viruses. In this group belong primarily liposomes, molecular conjugates, and "naked" DNA. Liposomes are combined with the DNA of any size and form lipid-DNA complex, which can be inserted into different cell types. This system, however, has no tissue specificity and therapeutic effectiveness of its use is not yet satisfactory. Because of the need for greater specificity for certain types of cells, molecular conjugates are also used. Molecular conjugates are produced as protein or synthetic molecules with the ability to bind to cell DNS or RNA, on which the desired gene is attached is produced as a protein or a synthetic molecule with the ability to bind to cellular DNA or RNA, in order to make protein-DNA complex. By producing of conjugates, the desired specificity for certain cells is increased, and the disadvantage of this system is too short lifespan of the conjugates. Application of "naked" DNA is the simplest way of its incorporation into target cells without use of viral and non-viral vectors. The station is introduced by mechanical methods such as direct injection into the tissue or bombarding tissues rapidly with DNA bound to gold particles. This method has already been tested in transgenic immunotherapy in the treatment of colon cancer and melanoma. A disadvantage of this method is also the lack of tissue specificity and the need for surgical access of tumor tissue if it is not located in an accessible place.

Gene therapy is not to replace conventional forms of cancer treatment, but, in combination with conventional treatments, it will probably guarantee the improvement of its achievement and, more importantly, will have its use in suppressing residual disease, which occupies the second place on the list of causes of death in humans.

Cancer results from the abnormal and irregular cell proliferation and growth resulting in a mass of cells known as tumor. The tumor is made up of millions of cancer cells and is known as the primary cancer or primary tumor. In the malignant tumors, there is a tendency for the tumor cells to break away from the original site of formation and migrate to other parts of the body to form tumors in the new site. This new cancer or tumor is known as metastatic or secondary cancer. In case of breast cancer, the breast cancerous cells migrate to different parts of the body forming secondary breast cancer.

The cancer cells migrate through the blood stream or the lymph fluid of the lymphatic system. After breaking away from the primary tumor, the cancer cells migrate into the blood stream and in some cases may be trapped in various tissues or organs within the body. On getting trapped, some of the cancer cells may face ultimate death, while the others may remain inactive within the organ or tissue for years. These inactive cancer cells may become active after some time to start dividing to form secondary breast cancer. The reason behind the death of some cancer cells and the dormancy of other cancer cells remains unknown and requires detailed research to elucidate the exact mechanism for the formation of secondary breast cancer.

The migration of the breast cancer cells is limited to some parts of the body and hence, the probability of formation of secondary breast cancer is restricted to these specific parts within the body. The movement of the cancer cells via the lymphatic system causes their spread to the lymphatic nodes that are nearby the breast such as the neck, collarbone, etc. The migration via the bloodstream results in the formation of secondary breast cancer in primarily three regions within the body: bone, liver, and lungs. There is a minor possibility of the spread of the cancer cells to the brain. Usually, secondary breast cancer is known to affect one particular region within the body, however in some rare cases, it may affect more than one place.

Metastatic or secondary breast cancer is a life-threatening disease and has low survival rate as complete cure is not possible, only management of the disease for a period of time usually less than a decade is possible. It is a chronic condition. According to MD Anderson researchers, 40% of women with recurrent or metastatic breast cancer survive at least for five years. The treatment for the metastatic cancer takes a number of factors into consideration such as the body part affected, history of past treatments undergone, general health history, details of menopause if already had. The secondary breast cancer usually responds to a number of treatments that help in the control of the disease for a long time with as few side effects as possible. Clinical trials and researches are going on to develop new types of treatments for the disease.

Proper counselling of the patient is very essential before staring the treatment to console the patient and give elaborate idea and information about the treatment procedure to overcome the shock of getting to know the condition. The discussion about the different treatment options available and suitable for that particular patient are analysed by including her family members before starting the actual course of treatment.

The different types of therapies available for the treatment of secondary breast cancer are:

I) Hormone therapy: It is the most common method of treatment and helps in the shrinkage of the cancer thereby helping in its control. The presence of oestrogen receptors (ER positive) and Progesterone receptors (PER positive) are analysed in the cancer cells as their presence helps in the effective hormone therapy. Compared to Chemotherapy, Hormone therapy is accompanied with fewer negative side effects.

II) Chemotherapy: It is applicable if the cancer cells are found to be hormone receptors negative. It treats the cancer cells spread throughout the body. It is most suitable for secondary breast cancer in liver and lungs.

III) Biological therapy: Biological therapy uses monoclonal antibody trastuzumab (Herceptin). The main role of Herceptin is the targeting of the protein HER2 that is responsible for the growth and multiplication of the breast cancer cells. However, this treatment if effective only in HER2 positive women, who constitute about one out of four breast cancer patients. Hence, the combination of this with other treatments is usually adopted. A monoclonal antibody denosumab (Prolia, Xgeva) is generally used in the treatment of secondary breast cancer that has spread to the bones.

IV) Radiotherapy: It helps in the treatment of individual parts of the body. It is effective in the treatment of secondary breast cancer that has spread to the bones, brain, mastectomy scar or the skin around the breast area.


The presence or absence of female hormones in the pre- or post-menopausal period decides the course of treatment, due to the influence of the hormone levels, apart from the growth rate of the secondary breast cancer. A class of drugs bisphosphates available in two forms-
a) pills like Fosamax and Actonel
b) Venous injections like Aredia and Zometa
has helped in women with secondary breast cancer in bones.

Research is ongoing in metastatic breast cancer and the scientists are hopeful about the development of new drugs and treatments for the disease in near future.

There are numerous discussions about the development and use of modern biotechnology, especially about the safety of genetically modified foods. Benefits for human health, as well as risks can be divided into four categories:

1. Benefits:
- Increased food safety
- Enhanced nutritional composition of foods
- Food with even more health benefits
- Reduction of certain chronic diseases related to diet

By the application of genetic engineering, organoleptic properties and expiration date of certain grains were able to improve. Delaying the rotting process of fruit and vegetables provides better quality, taste, color and texture. With the help of genetic engineering it is possible to create foods with greater amount of minerals, vitamins and antioxidants. Also, by increasing crop yields deforestation is prevented, and, the most important for the developing countries, economic development is accelerated.

For developing countries, particularly useful is growing beans resistant pathogens, virus-resistant papaya, cotton, and rice enriched with vitamin A. The production of certain vaccines for oral use is also important, which would be cheaper, easier to store and less stressful to use than the previous ones, and would be used for prevention of diarrhea, cholera and hepatitis B.

On the other hand, for many researchers, and the public production of so-called Frankenstein food is unacceptable tampering with nature.

2. Risks:

- Allergies
- Toxicity
- Nutrient imbalance
- Decrease of food diversity

There are concerns that the use of genetic engineering in the food industry can increase sensitivity to certain allergens. In fact, the transfer of allergenic properties of donor can be transferred to recipient. Foreign genes can disrupt the balance of nutrients. The question is how that changes will affect:

- Interaction of nutrients
- Interaction between nutrients and genes
- Bioavailability of nutrients
- Metabolism and
- "Strength" of nutrients.

By the production of genetically modified foods, different genes from different genetically modified organisms are transmitted in different ways. So far, this food is present in the market, because it is approved in many studies, so it is a little likely to endanger the life of man.

In order to determine the attitude to genetically modified products, we need to have in mind many facts, such as the rapid growth in world population, the available farmland, environment and the characteristics of genetically modified food and its impact on human health. At the same time it takes extensive knowledge and multidisciplinary approach to this issue in order to take advantage of this technology, and to avoid negative consequences.

Methods of resolving ethical issues of biotechnology:
1. We need to understand what might be called the nature of genes and their origins, evolution, and their role in the shaping of different organisms
2. Until we understand well the size and role of genetic exchange between different types of materials we should not experiment with transgenic organisms
3. We must bear in mind that the largest number of phenotype properties of humans by which people differ, result from the large number of genes and environmental factors
4. Information related to the genetics should exclusively be used to allow each person to make a personal decision about life style.
5. The creation of biological weapons should be completely banned
6. Genetic diversity of species on Earth is one of the main resources of our planet and it is of the greatest interest to preserve that diversity.

The development of biotechnology has enabled access to genetic information stored in chromosomes and opened the way for a new development. Products obtained by using biotechnology have the potential to positively affect the environment and to change human society. On the other hand, there is much still unknown and the possibility of misuse of scientific discoveries and unpredictable consequences of scientific research are reality. It is impossible to rule out the occurrence of bioterrorism. Therefore, the development of biotechnology brings up many unresolved issues, the questions of intellectual property and legal issues.

Many predict that, over the next decade, thanks to genome sequencing operations in the developed countries, scientific development will direct towards biotechnology, while the Internet and information technology are to be suppressed from today’s leading positions.

Making diagrams of the human genome is considered by many to be the greatest scientific achievement of the twentieth century. Reading of the genome will open new areas in the field of science and medicine, but will also lead to major changes in the sphere of industry, economy and other sciences as well as in the way of thinking about the world and nature. Directed manipulation with genetic material has become a reality, and studies have begun to direct to the developing of more sophisticated instruments and methods.

So we are left to hope and to make an effort for the benefits of biotechnology to overcome the disadvantages, and to contribute to the development of the mankind.

(Posted on behalf of Sasa)

Dear Genetic Engineers,

I agree completely that your work is helpful to human kind. It's not unethical either. I am a diabetic (type 1) and I most likely could not live without your work. You helped get insulin for diabetics. You help make medicines and find cures for many diseases. You also believe you can help with making foods better (GM foods) and I trust you to do it. I believe that Genetic Engineering is completely worth the risks and someday could change mankind completely. Keep up the good work you guys/girls!

Sincerely,
Jayce Bertsch

All forecasts about global progress of technology in the 21st century agree that molecular biotechnology is going to be driving force of modern civilization. The reason for these forecasts lies in the problems of modern civilization. These problems can be easily summarized in the following challenges:

1. Getting the raw materials for the chemical and other industries from other renewable energy sources (eg. biomass), and not from fossil fuels because of the limited quantities.
2. Getting new biodegradable materials.
3. Obtaining alternative forms of energy (use of secondary biomass and other materials of various origins for the production of gas, alcohol and hydrogen).
4. Improving agricultural production (getting fertilizers of organic origin, animal feed, modern and less hazardous pesticides).
5. Health care (production of new antibiotics, new vaccines, new drugs and new diagnostic equipment).
6. Protection of the environment (removing the waist from water, degradation of pollutants, the revitalization of polluted soil, etc.).

The Benefits of Molecular Biotechnology

Biotechnology is defined as a process that uses living organisms or their parts for creation or modification of certain products, and for different types of services (for example, the use of microorganisms prior to clean polluted water). By the introduction of the latest trends in the field of molecular biology in the form of genetic engineering, an entirely new quality is developed. Instead of simply isolation of some products that some organism already synthesized, it is now possible to make the whole “biological factories” from microorganisms, plants or animal cells that will produce great quantities of valuable compounds such as proteins, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, etc. On the other hand, by the use of genetic engineering it is possible to clone the genes encoding this product and transfer them into another organism, or make transgenic organisms.

The benefit of molecular biotechnology in food production, getting energy and raw materials for different types of industries, is increasing due to opportunities to use renewable resources by its application. In fact, more and more work on the promotion of use of secondary raw materials, which often create environmental problems, is performed. In this way, the dual benefit is achieved: solving environmental problems and getting useful product from such raw materials.

The contribution of Genetic Engineering

Contribution of genetic engineering to the development of molecular biotechnology is reflected in the fact that it enables:
1. Studying the structure and function of genes of all living systems which are interesting for manipulation, because they determine the production of a substance of commercial significance.
2. Causing mutations in specific place in the gene, which may result in increasing of the synthesis of the product the gene carries the information for.
3. Overcoming the bottlenecks in the biosynthesis of useful metabolites by increasing the number of genes responsible for the synthesis of enzymes that are critical in biosynthetic pathway. Increasing the number of genes in the cell enables the synthesis of this enzyme in bigger amount, and thus seems to increase the synthesis of the end product of biosynthetic pathway.
4. Obtaining the product that is in some other way, difficult, expensive or impossible to get. The greatest contribution to the genetic engineering is certainly in this domain. The genetic engineering enables manipulation with genes and transfer of these genes from one biological species to another, because , it can not happen spontaneously in nature.

On the other hand, it is possible to construct a chimeric gene (for example, part of the proteinase encoding gene originates from one and the other part of the gene that encodes the same enzyme originates from other species), and to insert so constructed genes into a living organism.

Genetically Modified Organisms

In general, organisms whose genetic material s changed in a way that does not occur in nature, or where a change in the genetic material was obtained by genetic engineering are called genetically modified organisms (GMOs). In his way, new biological systems can be obtained that can be used in biotechnological processes.

Economic aspects

The decision on the application of molecular biotechnology to improve existing biotechnological production or for the development of new biotechnological process must depend on the economic analysis of the entire process, which is to be improved. This analysis should at least include the information about (a) the market for biotechnological product (need for specific product, in which amount and the annual dynamics), (b) the availability and cost of raw materials for biotechnological processes, © the reasons of inefficiency of biotechnological process that is already in use, and (d) the existence of conditions for successful implementation of genetic engineering.

Given its opportunities, molecular biotechnology provides the basis for achieving significantly higher production using process that already exists. Besides that, it provides opportunities for opening of the new industrial era in terms of construction processes that will allow to get the project which otherwise could not be obtained in satisfying amount or were very expensive to make.

The use of molecular biotechnology to make today’s biotechnology more accurate and cost effective is a realistic expectation. Therefore, in the present world, by the term of molecular biotechnology are actually considered technological processes based on GMOs, and it is expected that molecular biotechnology will become the basis for the development of technologies of the 21st century. Therefore, it is not surprising that an extremely large number of companies have focused their research and development on molecular biotechnology having in mind the potential of this technology.

Biomarkers play a vital role in medicine as they give an idea about the severity of a disease with reference to the presence of the characteristics of any disease state that are identifiable and measurable. It actually indicates the physiological state of an organism by acting as an indicator of a particular state of disease. They help in the evaluation of various biological and pathogenic processes within an organism as well as the pharmacological response to therapeutics by objective measure including diagnostics and other imaging technologies. They give an idea about the drug action, drug metabolism and its efficacy as well as safety.

The development of cancer involves multiple stages such as genetic changes, epigenetic, cytogenetic as well as cell cycle changes. Hence, the advancement of different technologies that can help in the detection of the development of different stages may help in getting an in-depth understanding of the progression of cancer that may in turn help in the development of possible therapeutics for different types of cancer. Therefore, biomarkers play a very essential role in the detection, diagnosis, and prognosis of patient as well as the selection of personalized treatment for cancer.

The understanding of the pathways of the disease, the gene and protein targets of the disease have helped in the use of biomarkers in the different imaging technologies such as genomics, proteomics as well as genetics that are non-invasive in nature. The establishment of the exact relationship between the clinical pathology of cancer progression and the biomarkers can help in its early diagnosis and the prognosis of the patients by the clinical oncologists, which may further help in the development of patient specific treatment. The Human genome project has helped in the advancement of NDA sequencing studies with the development of microarrays, mass spectrometry, etc. that has helped in the expansion of the number of biomarkers available for different types of cancers. Some of the biomarkers that are used presently in the diagnostic as well as therapeutics for cancer are given below.

Cytogenetic markers: One of the markers for cancer is the different structural changes introduced in the chromosomes such as chromosomal aberrations. Somatic mutations in the reporter genes, oncogenes as well as the tumor suppressor genes have also proved to be a potent marker for cancer. Apart from them, specific changes in the transcriptomes are also being developed as biomarkers. E.g. the transcriptome marker based on the levels of exon-3 deleted variant isoform of proghrelin, the precursor of ghrelin, which is a growth factor associated with proliferation of prostrate cancer cells is being developed as a biomarker. The clonal and spatial heterogeneity analyses are the two main features of malignant tumors, which can be carried out by different histological, biochemical and cytometric methods.

Genetic markers: The transformation of the genes leading to gain or loss of function is associated with the formation of oncogenes. The random mutations that occur due to different factors in the regulatory region of the genes are responsible for this oncogenic transformation. In most of the cancers, genes act as potent biomarkers that help in the diagnosis as well as gene-based therapy of the disease. Gene deletions may also help in the development of the disease. These changes within the genes can be identified using PCR techniques as well as Microsatellite probes as microsatellite instability or alterations is one of the changes evident in preneoplastic stage of tumor cells. The Adenomatous polyposis gene (APC) is associated with the suppression of cancer, which is altered in the carcinoma patients by somatic mutation, hypermethylation or production of short and non-functional APC protein.

Epigenetic markers: Epigenetic changes are usually associated with modification in the gene expression patterns that result due to changes in the histone proteins associated with DNA by methylation, acetylation or phosphorylation. The hypomethylation of genomes is associated with instability of the genomes as well as stronger gene expression, while hyper methylation in the CpG island promoter is associated with the silencing of the functions of the tumor suppressor genes such as apoptotic genes, metastatic genes as well as biotransformation and signal transduction genes. Hypermethylation and aberrant methylation has been used as a biomarker in many carcinomas. The research in the field of epigenetics has helped in increasing the rate of survival with some form of leukaemias as well as lymphomas with the use of drugs that help in the alteration of DNA methylation and histone acetylation. However, the development of drugs or therapeutics that may help in the reversal of the epigenetic changes remain to be seen in near future.

It is a fact that no one can simply keep track of today's technology development. Gordon Moore, the founder of the largest manufacturer of microprocessors - Intel, predicted in 1965 that the number of transistors on a printed circuit board until 1975 would double. He was wrong only for not anticipating that this process would not be finished.

However, the end of that is very predictable now. Computers are becoming faster and more powerful as the transistors and other parts are reduced in size- the shorter the path that electrons are transferred, the faster it works. Scientists from the American Bell laboratories have already built transistors that can carry electrons across the gap of the size of one molecule. It is clear that computer components is now difficult to downsize because soon, they would reach a size that would be measured by nanometers, and they would simply “escape” the laws of physics. This is why many experts believe that further progress of the silicon technology may be impossible.

The New Hope
Professor Kevin Homewood from the UK's University Surrey recently forced silicon to emit light by putting in it tiny traps for electrons and forced them to emit photons of light. He got a silicon LED (light emitting diodes) that works at room temperature. This discovery is very important for the computer industry (LED display) that has already been working with silicon. It is believed that the use of light is going to allow computers to manipulate with images easier than ever. Some scientists even suggest that it will be possible to make computers using optical components only, and the hard drive would be a hologram.

These supercomputers, incomparably more powerful than today’s, could fit in a tiny drop of fluid. Their chips would no longer be made of silicon but of the DNA molecules.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a large molecule that looks like a ladder twisted into a spiral, preserves genetic information in all living organisms. American mathematician Leonard Edelman noticed in 1994. that the way the living world uses information form DNA is the same as the way in which information is processed by computer. Computer made from DNA has incredible benefits – Marble-sized liquid ball can contain 10 trillion molecules of DNA, and all of them simultaneously process information!

However, DNA molecules are not computers capable to solve difficult math problems. The example for this is the so-called “traveling salesman problem”, on which Eldman had tested the computational capabilities of the DNA. He gave to DNA computer the task to find the quickest route possible for traveling salesman who needs to tour certain number of geographically unrelated cities. This problem is extremely difficult for conventional computers because they must check one by one solution to get to the answer. DNA computer checks all the roads at the same time and it’s also very difficult way to solve the problem that way. But when the number of cities exceeds the certain limit, DNA computer is no longer able to solve the problem. For example, for the 200 cities the problem is so difficult that, in order to solve it, the DNA mass heavier than the Earth would be required!

Therefore it's unbelievable that the DNA, despite being an interesting solution, will ever become the main driving force of computers, but, as it is unbeatable solving certain types of tasks is, it is very likely that it will be used as a help or as a kind of parallel processor for very specific purposes, especially in medicine and transport. In 2002 the Japanese firm Olympus has announced that its scientists have made a prototype of genetic computers that can identify genetic diseases.
Bacterial Cell Computer

Dr Martin Amos from the University of Liverpool went a step further with this unbelievable technology – he began to use the whole cells to build a computer (E. coli bacteria). You can push bacterial cells to interact with the environment, and you can make a simple logic circuit, so that if the cell detects the infection, under certain conditions, it makes the appropriate antibiotic. That would certainly be a very intelligent system for producing and providing drug.

Organic Circuits
In 2001, Professor Peter Fromherz from Max Plank Biochemical Institute, managed to make the electric circuit of a piece of silicon and two nerve cells (neurons) are taken from the brain of a snail. On silicon substrates nerve cells have developed the connections that created the path for electrical signals. If one of the transistors beneath the cell changes the voltage, the electrical impulse will travel towards the other nerve cell. The other nerve cell, then stimulates it’s transistor creating a circuit. The experiment proved that it is possible to artificially make circuit which consists of electronics and organic tissue. Science discipline dealing with this kind of problems is called neuroelectronics.

Genetic engineering is not without reason called a technology of the century. It is defined differently, hence the many controversies when discussing its usefulness and abuse of this technology. Genetic engineering is often presented as a possibility of in vitro gene manipulation, where the meaning of manipulation is not clear and may be associated with abuse. However, the acceptable definition describes it as a target change and recombination, as well as insertion and further propagation of recombinant rDNA in living cells. According to this definition, the basic Genetic engineering criteria include cutting DNA molecules, joining cut fragments with DNA fragments from the same or different sources, insertion of such recombinant molecules in the cell where, if needed, it will continue to multiply or express specifically.

Reverse Transcriptase and Restriction Endonucleases
The development of genetic engineering begins with the discovery of the enzyme called reverse transcriptase (RNA-dependent DNA polymerase) and a group of enzymes called restriction endonucleases. These enzymes cut foreign DNA in places with specific arrangement of nucleotides. So far, hundreds of different restriction endonucleases are isolated, that cut both tracks DNA at specific places. These enzymes were named according to the bacteria from which they were isolated. Thus EcoRI isolated from Escherichia coli, and restriction endonuclease Hindia from Haemophilus influenzae. DNA fragments cut by restriction endonucleases may have such ends that spontaneously tend to merge, and they are called "sticky" ends, or they can be without this property and then are called "Blind" ends.

Other Methods
Besides the restriction endonuclease, other methods are also used:
- Enzymes which allow reconnection of broken pieces of DNA (DNA ligase)
- Procedures for inserting rDNA into the cell where it would be replicated
- Methods for the selection of clones of cells containing rDNA

The Use of Plasmids
Insertion of DNA into the cell is effectively carried out using vectors (DNA molecules with the ability of Self-replication in a host cell). The most commonly used vectors are plasmids (extrachromosomal bacterial DNA with the ability self-reproduction), bacteriophages, DNA and RNA viruses and cosmids (artificially constructed vectors). The use of plasmids in the experiments has the advantage because of the possibility of relatively simple determining which cells are transformed with the recombinant plasmid. Plasmids are the most common gene carriers for resistance to antibiotics. Insertion of foreign DNA in a region of the gene for resistance to antibiotic is associated with the loss of resistance of bacteria to an antibiotic. Since the plasmids that are used contain the genes for resistance to other antibiotics, growing bacteria on nutrient media containing those antibiotics allows selection of clones with recombinant bacterial plasmid. One of the lack of plasmids is that they often can not be stable if they contain large DNA fragments , and therefore, for this purpose the viruses and cosmids are used.

Vaccine Production
Production of vaccines from the standpoint of our problems, it is very interesting, because any potential aggressor will try to protect their own units from the biological agents used. Production of the vaccine is a relatively simple process, and produced vaccines are nontoxic, avirulent and more efficient than existing vaccines.

Detection
The use of genetic engineering for diagnosis significantly improves the ability of detection of the used biological weapons. The techniques of genetic engineering require small sample, and the techniques are very sensitive and accurate.

Changing The Genetic Structure of Microorganisms
Using genetic engineering when changing the genetic structure of microorganisms is consisted in general of three established procedures:

a) Transformation (procedure in which parts of the DNA from other microbes are introduced into the cell of the agent examined by changing some properties of it.
Using this procedure we can change resistance and virulence of the organisms.

b) Transduction (the process of introduction of the new genes into the organism through certain bacterial viruses. This phenomenon occurs spontaneously in nature)

c) Conjugation is crossing of mutual similar microorganisms with mutual changes of biological properties. This method has rather unpredictable results.

Conclusion
Undoubtedly, genetic engineering can be abused for changing the microorganisms in order to make them more virulent, resistant to some antibiotics or most antibiotics, and it’s even possible to make such changes that cause the new microorganism not to resemble the initial strain any more. As in many other cases, large scientific discoveries are preceded by the military aimed studies. If the genetic engineering in civil laboratories is so advanced, the question is how advanced military labs are and in what direction? At a time when many countries are conducting research in the field of genetic engineering, and the results are not published for over twenty years, the danger is not to be underestimated.

Hi,

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We are seeking individuals with good analytical and communication skills and people who are interested in building a knowledge-oriented career and not just doing a job.

COMPANY PROFILE

GeBBS Healthcare Solutions
GeBBS is a leading provider of Healthcare BPO and IT services to Hospitals and Providers. We are ISO 9001 certified firm based in Englewood Cliffs, NJ, with multiple offshore delivery centers in India. We focus on providing Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) and Information Technology (IT) Solutions to Healthcare Providers and Payers. We help our clients succeed by leveraging on our domain expertise and our innovative and cost effective approach to on-shore/ off-shore outsourcing.

Job Description: Medical Coding

Medical coding is the process of transforming descriptions of medical diagnoses and procedures into universal medical code numbers. The diagnoses and procedures are usually taken from a variety of sources within the medical record, such as the transcription of the doctor's notes, laboratory results, radiologic results, and other sources.


Job Designation: Medical Coder

Required Skills:
Graduates/Postgraduates in B.Sc with specialization in Zoology,Botany, Biology, Biotechnology, Micro-Biology, B-Pharm and M-Pharm.
Should possess good oral and written communication skills.
Typing speed of minimum 25-30 wpm is a must.
Ability to work with speed and Accuracy.


Contact Person: Harshad Bandekar –9820693662

Walk-in for the interview at the below address from 11:00 am TO 5:00 pm (Monday to Friday).


Venue for Interview for Medical Coding only Airoli

Work Location

GeBBS Healthcare Solutions Pvt. Ltd
4th floor, building no.5, Mindspace,
Thane-Belapur road, Airoli
Opp Airoli railway station,
Mumbai – 400708
Let me know if you have any quires. Call to book your interview.

Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology involves the whole specter of techniques for finding a specific gene in the genome of a species, isolating, cloning, determining the sequence of nucleotides, changing it, and installing it in genome of the same or different species. By selecting the proper regulatory regions (e.g. promoter), gene in the target organism can be activated according to desire of researchers in the specific conditions or in specific tissues. That technology is being applied successfully for almost 30 years in scientific research and has achieved useful properties of different types of organisms.

No matter whether the final aim of the application of genetic engineering is scientific research or achieving useful properties of commercially valuable organisms, the procedures are the same. Also, regardless of whether carried on prokaryotic organisms, plants or animals, the basic techniques are very similar and almost always involve insertion of the desired DNA fragments into bacterial plasmid, using restriction endonucleases and DNA ligase. Fragment (gene) that needs to be incorporated into the genome of the target organism is prepared, analyzed and multiplied using plasmids in Escherichia coli. Depending on the organism (bacteria, plant or animals), the procedures of inserting the desired gene into the genome may vary. In plants, for this purpose, the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens is most commonly used, or the desired gene gets inserted into the cell by device called "gene gun". Once the desired gene is incorporated into the cell genome of certain plant, the whole plants regenerate from these cells, and those plants are commonly referred to as transgenic plants.

The Properties of Agrobacterium Tumefaciens and Interaction with Plants
A. tumefaciens lives in the soil almost everywhere in the world. Genetic Material of this bacteria is made of one large circular double-stranded DNA molecule (Bacterial chromosome) and one relatively large plasmid (plasmid Ti). The bacteria has developed unusual behavior during evolution - when the plant close to the ground is injured, bacteria move towards that place by chemotaxis, enter the intercellular spaces, and attach to the healthy plant cells, inserting into the plant genome a specific part of their plasmids (that part of the plasmid is called T-DNA). T-DNA contains two sets of genes: genes forgrowth regulators (plant hormones) and the genes for the substances that bacteria use as food (all the genes contain eukaryotic promoters so they are active in transcription in plant cells). Cells in which the genome of the bacterial T-DNA is incorporated are transformed cells. Growth regulators stimulate uncontrolled proliferation of transformed plant cells, and from such cells in a relatively short period of time a cluster of identical cells is developed (the tumor). Because of the different sets of genes in the T-DNA, tumor cells produce and secret into the intracellular space substances that bacteria use as food.

How is A. tumefaciens used in genetic engineering?
After the plasmid Ti is isolated from bacteria, the T-DNA genes are all cropped leaving only peripheral T-DNA sequences about 25 nucleotide pairs long (these edges of the T-DNA are essential for the transfer of T-DNA from the bacterium into the plant genome). Instead of the original gene in T-DNA, using restriction endonucleases and DNA ligaze, the desired gene, which was previously prepared and amplified by another plasmid in the bacterium E. coli, is incorporated. Such a recombinant plasmid is inserted into the bacterium A. tumefaciens and the bacteria are grown in a liquid medium. Then the cells of the plant we want to transform are added in the bacterial suspension. Since bacteria do not distinguish the original T-DNA from T-DNA in which desired genes are incorporated, it will incorporate desired genes into the genome of plant cells by the same mechanism by which it naturally does. From plant cells which have incorporated the desired gene, the plants are regenerated using appropriate nutrient medium. The new plants are then planted in the ground.

Recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering provide almost incredible opportunities for improving the properties of organisms used for various purposes. Some properties that are the target for hundreds of years, it is possible to get in a very elegant way using the application of these technologies. Genetic engineering is currently the only technology used in breeding plants, and the most important thing is that by its application we know exactly what kind of changes in the genetic material caused the new properties.

Stem cells are the basic cells of the human body, which are necessary for the development of all tissues. However, they have the ability to morph into specific tissues during the life. This means that they represent a kind of "backup cells" to restore damaged tissues.

Today, the majority of stem cell therapies is performed using adult stem cell, but stem cell therapies with umbilical cord blood have also given excellent results and are increasingly used. For now, the stem cells are used to treat blood diseases, metabolic diseases and immune system disorders.

Treatment implies regeneration of damaged tissues and organs using stem cells. Patient’s own stem cells have been successfully used in the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Therefore, an entire medical discipline has been developed in order to use stem cells to treat a variety of diseases. Today, over 70 different diseases are successfully treated (different types of leukemia, genetic metabolic disorders, immune system disorders, anemia…).

Where can we take stem cells from?
- Stem cells exist in the human body from embryonic development to the end of life, in various tissues. In adults, the highest concentration is in the bone marrow and blood. But taking stem cells from the bone marrow is painful and difficult process. In some cases it is even necessary to prick femur more than a hundred times. Therefore, the last 15 years, the idea of keeping person’s own stem cells taken from umbilical cord blood after birth came to life. They are very young and vital, and the process of obtaining is completely safe and painless. The blood sample is taken from the umbilical cord after separating the child from the mother after birth. Stem cells are then isolated from the blood sample and frozen to minus 196 degrees in the gas phase of liquid nitrogen. This process is called cryopreservation, and that way saved stem cells can last indefinitely and, most importantly, they do not get old.

Where to store the samples taken?
- During the last decade, a considerable number of stem cell banks have been formed because more and more parents decide to keep the stem cells from the umbilical cord blood of their newborns. European leader among private-family stem cell banks is a Belgian-Dutch company, Cryo-Save (http://www.cryo-save.com ), with a central laboratory in Belgium. The bank keeps over 100,000 stem cell samples from around the world. For safety reasons, samples are stored in two locations – in Belgium and in the Netherlands.

Who takes the stem cells in the maternity ward?
- The process of taking a sample of blood for stem cells performs an obstetrician immediately after delivery and separation of the newborn. A sample is taken from the part of the umbilical cord that remains attached to placenta and it is placed in a special bag that is part of a set. The procedure is quick (one or two minutes) and painless for both mother and baby. The collected blood is than placed in transport containers. The sample is kept strictly at room temperature until the processing (15-25 degrees).

Do you need special training of the hospital personnel to perform this procedure? What is the success of this procedure?

- Maternity hospital where the samples are taken from umbilical cord blood, have trained personnel (doctors) to carry out these procedures. The amount of blood that can be collected, and the concentration and viability of stem cells in the sample are individual and vary on a case by case basis. The results of the procedures performed can be known after processing in the laboratory. Statistically, this procedure was successful in 95 percent of the cases.

Which family members can use stem cells?
- Stem cells taken at birth from the umbilical cord are the cells of the newborn. If applied in treatment of the child (autologous), they are completely identical. After that, it is most likely to be applicable in siblings and then in parents. Anyway, before allogenic transplantation, compatibility between donor and recipient must first be checked.

How many times can you use a sample? For example, is it possible to treat more family members with different diseases?

- The amount of stem cells that are obtained from a sample of the umbilical cord blood is individual and varies in significant ranges. For each case, quantity required to be used is specifically determined, and whether it is necessary to take additional samples or their multiplications.

Ergonomics

The Association of Canadian Ergonomists define Ergonomics as the scientific discipline concerned with interactions among humans and other elements of a system (e.g. the tools, equipment, products, tasks, organization, technology, and environment). The profession applies theory, principles, data, methods, and analysis to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance. It is a multidisciplinary field that promotes both health and productivity in the working environment. The coming together of biological and life sciences with behavioural and social sciences topped with technical sciences is the basic idea of ergonomics.

Responsibilities of an Ergonomist

An ergonomist is an occupational health expert mainly involved in the designing of efficient and comfortable tools, equipments, and furniture for use in work place of different organizations by the application of scientific knowledge and problem-solving skills. Consideration of human anatomy along with safety to minimize physical strain is the working motto of an ergonomist, who uses a holistic approach to ensure the physical, social, cognitive, organizational, environmental, and other important factors for designing and modification of any system. The main responsibilities include the following:

a) Interpreting the interaction of humans with the equipments, to analyse the limitations of human body by careful observation and evaluation in the working environment.

b) Study system performance by developing experimental designs, using data collections instruments and procedures to analyse workplace risk assessments.

c) Assess the effect of working environment on the users and analyse the areas for improvement and optimization of existing practices and procedures.

d) Investigate the demands forced on the workers regarding their physical, postural, physiological, cognitive, job, work, and stress parameters.

e) With the help of different instruments, modelling and simulation studies, the physical environment is assessed.

f) Designing practical solutions to help the workers and analyse the suitability of these to meet the needs of the workers in terms of motor, cognitive, and sensory capabilities of workers.

g) Producing user manuals for the proper and efficient use of the new products.

h) Make reports of the findings and recommendations by writing proposals and presenting statistical data.

i) Employing creative methods to implement the new systems.

j) Teaching the workers about the dynamics of human body and proper work practices.

k) Investigating workplace accidents by visiting a wide range of working environments such as offices, factories, hospitals, etc. and to assess the health and safety standards.

l) Providing recommendations, training, and advice to the clients as well as colleagues regarding personnel management, and the specification, design, evaluation, operation and maintenance of the products and systems.

m) Acting as expert witness to industrial injury and understand the working pattern of specific systems and industries in short space of time.

n) Consulting and liaising with other professionals such as health specialists and designers to collect and integrate data from several scientific and professional points of view.

o) Identifying new opportunities for work.

Employment opportunities

The skills and knowledge of an ergonomist have application in different public and private sector organizations such as government bodies, computer consultancies, major manufacturing companies, defence and process companies, research institutes, safety/consumer laboratories, transport companies, hospitals, universities, utility companies, NHS. Ergonomists may also work on a self-employed consultancy based contracts.
Opportunities for ergonomists are advertised in different newspapers and publications such as The Ergonomist, The Psychologist, Applied Ergonomics and Ergonomics, etc.

Educational Background

There are basically two routes to qualify as a professional ergonomist.

1) A BSc in Ergonomics recognised by the Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors with a post graduation degree in a relevant area such as MSc or PhD by course or research.

2) A Post-graduate degree in design, biology, psychology, kinesiology, biomechanics, medicine, sociology, anthropology, physics, occupational therapy, mathematics, operational research, physiology, sports science can be helpful in case of graduates without relevant first degree.

However, experience in the relevant area is beneficial and can be gained by approaching the employers, or taking part in voluntary work, placements, vacation courses, job shadowing, and networking. Some courses include a year of practical experience and the choice of course may affect the specialisation area as a professional ergonomist. Sandwich options on degree courses are helpful as they offer a year of practical experience.

Membership in the Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors helps a great deal in finding the right opportunities, which is open to all. The added advantage in the entry of qualified and experienced candidates in this institute is their listing in the professional register with their profile being sent to prospective employers offering more employment opportunities.

Potential Skills in an ergonomist

Good problem solving with numerical and analytical skills are an essential must in an ergonomist combined with good interpersonal communication and negotiation skills. Good grasping power of technical concepts with systematic approach to work and being up-to-date about latest developments in the field is an added advantage for a bright career. A good ergonomist must be creative and be willing to work independently as well as in a team.

Salary

Salaries vary according to the organizations. According to UK’s official career website, the range of typical salaries for new ergonomics graduate is £20,000-£25,000 while those with around five years experience may have £25,000-£40,000. The senior ergonomists may earn up to £60,000. According to BLS, the median annual ergonomist salary was just over $77,000 in 2011.

What is Cytogenetic technology?

Cytogenetics deals with the study of cell division along with the structure of chromosomes. The main application of this field is in the study of different congenital birth defects and genetic diseases involving the study of acquired abnormalities in the chromosomes that are usually found in different types of cancer. The Human Genome project has played a very important role in the development of the new field of cytogenetic technology. It has helped a great deal in the study related to relevant genes responsible for different diseases as well as in the development of knowledge regarding the location and sequence of the fatal genes. Recent studies have shown the involvement of genes in most of the fatal diseases affecting humans. Hence, targeting the genes responsible for the diseases is becoming increasingly important. Hence, cytogenetic technology has shown great advancement and is being applied clinically for diagnostic, prognostic, and monitoring purposes of various inherited and acquired abnormalities in the genes. The main application of cytogenetics is in the prenatal diagnosis of the amniotic fluid by amniocentesis and the sampling of the chorionic villus as well as in the peripheral blood studies for postnatal diagnosis. It has also found application in the diagnosis and treatments of different haematological diseases and fertility problems.

Career description and skills necessary for a Cytogenetic technologist

A good background in science is very essential for a cytogenetic technologist to carry out proper cytogenetic analysis of the different specimens collected such as amniotic fluid, blood, and bone marrow. A clinical cytogenetic technologist has many responsibilities. His responsibility starts with the evaluation of proper methods carried out for the handling of the different types of samples for cytogenetic analysis involving proper collection, transport, and storage of the collected samples. He must be well equipped with knowledge regarding the different cell culture and harvesting techniques with proper understanding of cell cycle mechanisms and the biochemistry behind the different procedures carried out in a cytogenetic analysis. Being knowledgeable in the different laboratory practices regarding genetics and its related nomenclature to be able to identify the presence of abnormalities in the chromosomes is required of a cytogenetic technologist. He must be able to perform the karyotyping of human chromosomes i.e. organization of chromosomes according to a standardized ideogram as well as chromosome preparation analysis, different staining procedures including slide preparation, microscopic and photomicroscopic analysis, computer imaging techniques and he must be up-to-date with the new developments in the field of molecular cytogenetics.

In addition to being equipped with good laboratory skills, he must be well aware of the safety protocols as well as the different quality assurance principles applicable in his area with knowledge about the different legal implications in his field. A good professional and ethical behaviour meeting the expected standards of a healthcare professional, is expected from a good cytogenetic technologist. Along with appropriate professional conduct, stress management, interpersonal communication skills are necessary for interaction with patients, other health-care personnel in his work place and public in general. In many cases, proper cytogenetic counselling becomes essential for the family members too, apart from the patient. Hence, the cytogenetic technologist must be well prepared in advance to meet the requirements, when essential with the maintenance of proper records of the patients and having detailed knowledge regarding the case.

Employment opportunities

The cytogenetic technologist has a wide range of opportunities in the medical field. Employment opportunities exist in hospitals, clinics, research laboratories, public health facilities, private medical laboratories, government facilities as well as in educational institutions as faculty.

Salary

The salary of a cytogenetic cytologist varies according to the employer and geographic location. The BLS projects job growth of 10 to 19 percent from 2010 to 2020. According to the survey conducted by the Dept. Of Academic affairs at MD Anderson Cancer Centre, the average starting salary for a staff cytogenetic technologist is $38,000 to $50,000. The median annual salary in 2011 was $57,000.

Educational background

The selection of a proper educational programme is very essential for a career in cytogenetic technology due to preferences of the prospective employers regarding the program accreditation. A bachelor’s degree in cytogenetic technology or cytogenetics from an accredited institution is essential. The prerequisites of the area of study are biology, chemistry, biochemistry or cellular biology, immunobiology, microbiology, genetics, cytogenetics, hematology, laboratory information systems, safety and quality control in laboratories. Pre-professional and professional course works are also included in the professional course. After meeting the academic and laboratory educational requirements, the students are certified by the Board of Registry of the American Society for Clinical Pathology. The National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences (NAACLS) also offers accreditation to the educational program of Cytogenetic technology.

Fragile X syndrome is inherited disorder associated mostly with males. Most prominent features of the disease are mental retardation, autistic and stereotypic (repetitive) behavior. It results from FMR1 (fragile X mental retardation 1) gene impairment. FMR1 gene is located on the X chromosome and it is essential for normal mental development. Since males have only one copy of the X chromosome, impaired version of the gene will inevitably result in disease. Number of CGG triplet repeats in the FMR1 gene indicates whether gene is healthy or mutated (fully mutated gene contains > 200 repeats) and serves as a marker in genetic testing for people who are at risk of getting offspring with disease. Fragile X is also known as single-gene cause of autism. Except drugs that are used to prevent hyperactivity, anxiety, aggressiveness (known symptoms of the disease), there is no single marketed drug that is specifically designed to treat social aspect of the fragile X syndrome.

Autism is neurodevelopmental disorder. It is characterized by impaired social and communication skills, and repetitive and restrictive behavior. Genetic background of disease is not fully revealed. Investigators are not certain if disease develops after rare genetic variants are combined (several genes are implicated) or as a consequence of rare genetic mutation. Sometimes, agents that induce birth defects (heavy metals, vaccines, toxins…) could trigger autism development. Estimated costs for an individual diagnosed with autism are ~3.99 million dollars for a lifetime. Disorder is “expensive” because autistic persons demand special medical care, special education and they rarely become capable to work and earn independent from their guardians. There is no known cure for autism. Children are usually treated with antipsychotics, anticonvulsants and antidepressants to alleviate some of the disease symptoms.

Recently published article announced that fragile X syndrome initially developed drug could be beneficial for the people diagnosed with autism. Researchers didn't have necessary data about dysfunctional brain pathways associated with altered behavior (typical for neurodevelopmental disorders), but recent experiment on genetically altered animals provided more information on potential biochemistry behind disease. Experiments on the mouse with fragile X showed lower level of gamma aminobutiryc acid (neurotransmitter) in various brain areas, including hippocampus (associated with memory, activity and orientation). Scientists hypothesized that lack of this neurotransmitter could trigger social anxiety and avoidance - typical fragile X associated behavior. Arbaclofen (or STX 209) acts like gamma aminobutyric acid type B agonist (synthetic imitator). It produces the same physiological effect as naturally (organism derived) substance and compensates the lack of gamma aminobutyric acid in the body. When tested in mice, drug showed great reduction of repetitive and anti-social behavior. Study in humans showed equally promising effects. It lasted for 2 years and comprised of mostly male fragile X sufferers aged 6 to 39. Drug was submitted in 2 doses per day during six weeks. After last dose was applied, 4 to 6 weeks long pause was made before participants were evaluated. Participants were monitored for: irritability, lethargy, repetitive behavior, hyperactivity… Social avoidance and parent-nominated problem behaviors showed improvement in all subjects. Arbaclofen could be of great help in treatment of autism due to high similarity of social and behavior problems with fragile X syndrome. Future trials will provide more information on drug safety and effectiveness in both disorders.

Since pharmacological treatment is still unavailable, another treatment option should be tested. Previous studies with horses and dolphins showed that autistic children manage to relax and socialize when they are near these animals. Latest study showed that almost any animal species (dogs, cats, rabbits, hamsters…) could produce similar healing effect. Autistic kids experience difficulties in recognizing other people’s emotions and needs and animals could learn them various important skills such as ability to share and provide comfort when needed. Trick is to introduce animal to a family later. If animal is already present when autistic children is born, animal will be considered as a part of normal environment and children wouldn’t change his own behavior to comfort the animal. Also, when animal is brought to the family, interaction between the family members will change and become more intense and warmer, which will significantly affect behavior of autistic children. You just need to decide which animal species suits you the best.

Food is source of energy for all biological functions in the living organisms. In the past, food wasn’t easily accessible as it is today. People had to pass long distances, cope with poor weather conditions and skip different environmental obstacles before catching a pray that could provide necessary dose of energy. Body learned to turn all excess amount of energy in fat to be used when regular food is not available. This mechanism is no longer needed because latest technologies simplify food production and its distribution on the global scale and offer a lot of edible materials that provide not just energy but pleasure in the modern society. Feeding is one of the primal instincts that need to be satisfied if we want to survive. Ironically, eating is what is killing thousands of people nowadays.

Obesity is medical condition diagnosed when body mass index exceeds 30 kg/m2 (BMI is calculated when number of kg is divided with height expressed in square meters). It usually results from excess calories intake and lack of physical activity. Genetic predisposition can play a role. Some type of diseases and medications (anti-psychotics, for example) could increase appetite and result in excess weight gain. Number of people diagnosed with obesity is increasing. Annually, between 111,909 and 365,000 people in USA and around 1 million people in Europe die due to obesity. Increased weight pose a great threat to the health. It is associated with cardiovascular disorders, diabetes type 2, metabolic syndrome, apnea, asthma…. People could treat obesity surgically by removing fat or by reducing gastric volume, but without changes in the lifestyle (including modified diet and regular exercise) most people will turn preoperative weight back. Most medications for obesity work as appetite suppressor. Some of those were pulled back from the market due severe side effects - fatal heart valve problems were noted. As from July 2012, two new drugs for obesity treatment are approved by the FDA.

Belviq (Lorcaserine) is selective serotonin agonist (binds to 5-HT2C receptor) that acts as appetite suppressor. After binding to receptor, proopiomelanocortin will be produced and patient will experience satiety. In time, that will result in weight loss. Since, its mechanism of action is similar to a previously mentioned drug, scientists paid special attention during Belviq development to create a drug that will avoid binding to the receptors in the heart valve.

Qsymia is combination of two previously marketed drugs: topiramate and phentermine. Topiramate is anti-seizure drug having weight loss as a side effect. Phentermine acts like appetite suppressor and a stimulant. This drug is more powerful than a Belviq.

If drugs work properly, patients will experience appetite reduction and will not feel hunger in between meals. Drugs will not boost the metabolism and patients are strongly advised to increase their everyday activities and move as much as possible. Both drugs showed promising effects; participants in the study managed to lose 4-8 percent of their body mass and reduce blood sugar level, which is another beneficial effect. Qsymia can reduce cholesterol level and blood pressure also. Both drugs will be available only via prescription. People that want to lose pound or two will not be able to get them. Just overweight and obese patients diagnosed with some of the typical obese related medical conditions (cardiac problems, diabetes type 2, increased cholesterol level…) will be able to use these medications.

Typical side effects may include dry mouth, constipation and tingling in the fingers. Qsymia is associated with severe heart side effects; it could increase heart rate and induce birth defects if taken during pregnancy. Women who are planning pregnancy should avoid this medication. Belviq may interfere with drugs that are usually prescribed for migraine and depression.

Increased body weight used to be a sign of wealth and good social-economic status in the past. Growing number of overweight people wasn’t recognized as a medical condition until 20th century. In 1997 WHO (World Health Organization) announced that obesity takes epidemic proportions with 9.8% obese people globally. Modern medicine provides a lot of evidence that excess amount of body fat leads to numerous serious disorders that could shorten life expectancy and prevent people from living healthy and happy life. Surgical procedures, novel drugs, and regular exercise combined with proper diet management… could reduce the number of diagnosed cases in the future.

Gene targeting uses homologues recombination techniques to change endogenous genes of interest by inserting new, or deleting and altering existing genes. Genetic recombination is facilitated by enzymes (usually of microbial origin) that cut and rejoin interrupted DNA strands during transformation of the genetic material. Size of the gene and its transcriptional activity are not limiting factors, allowing scientists to experiment with all kind of genes they want. Genes could be altered permanently, or just during certain development phase; they could be modified in specific tissue or in the whole organism. So far, gene targeting was applied in lot of different animal and plant species (from drosophila, human and mice to corn and tobacco). Methodology for each model organism is well known. Basically, genetic construct first need to be generated in the bacterial cell. It contains parts of the targeted gene, reporter gene and selectable marker. After genetic construct is inserted in embryonic stem cells, these cells will be injected to the embryo.

Targeting could be applied in numerous ways to provide different information on the investigated genes. Besides basic insight of gene functionalities, targeting could provide more information on gene related diseases and improve drug development project by guiding the process in the most suitable direction. That is the case with isogenic human disease models: selected cell are genetically altered to reflect exact genetic background of the disease. In vitro examination provides novel insight in the disease biology and allows scientists to test new therapeutic agents. Most cancers are investigated using this model. Although it is still new, it might become a standard in genetic disease investigation because it is less expensive and less complicated (in the technical sense) than conventional disease/drugs testing methodologies. Another way to apply targeting is in the field of protein engineering (novel proteins are designed).

Recently published article revealed that genetic targeting could be used for the elimination of the entire chromosome. Scientists from the University of Washington described targeted removal of the excess chromosome 21 in the fibroblast derived from the person with Down syndrome. Chromosome “free” cells were then transformed into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) for further investigation.

Adenoviral vector selectively inserted thymidine kinase neomycin phosphotransferase reporter gene (TKNEO) in the APP gene of the fibroblast DNA. APP gene encodes amyloid precursor protein that is integral part of cellular membranes in various tissues. Amyloid precursor protein is degraded via proteolysis to beta amyloid. Impaired version of beta amyloid can be easily recognized by its filamentous form. This protein is well studied due to tight association with Alzheimer’s disease: filamentous form of beta amyloid accumulates in the brain forming amyloid plaques, which are typical pathological finding in the brain of persons diagnosed with the disease. Reason why this specific gene is targeted is not clear, but TKNEO managed to be successfully incorporated in just one copy of the chromosome 21. When cells were selected against the TKNEO, the best way for them to survive was to eliminate extra chromosome which now pose a threat for their survival. Vast majority of the cells did exactly that. Most prominent survival method was spontaneous loss of extra chromosome during mitoses and the frequency observed indicated that selective pressure pushed the cells in this direction. Other survival methods: epigenetic mutation, silencing of the TKNEO gene, targeted deletion of the gene, and point mutation were noted at much lower rate. At the end, all Down syndrome derived cells that remain in trisomic state end up killed. Only cells that spontaneously reverted to their disomic state remained alive. Newly derived generation of the disomic cells were further transformed in iPS thanks to selective transcriptional and growth factors applied. These cells showed high proliferation rate.

This experiment showed for the first time that genetic targeting could affect the number of chromosomes beside certain genes and/or their parts and it certainly paved the path for the future clinical and research analysis. Treatment of Down syndrome using this method is still far from possible. Scientists are not sure if this method is 100% safe or associated with potential genotoxicity. For the moment, described technique will be used for gathering information about disease that could help scientists create better future therapeutics.