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by Lavkeshsharma at 08-08-2017, 05:03 AM
2 comments
Biochip
Description :
A biochip is a device that has some of the features of a computer chip but, instead of doing calculations, it uses living cells(or molecules from living cells) to greatly speed up certain laboratory tests.A typical biochip is a glass or plastic chip or tile a few inches on a side. It has hundreds or even tens of thousands of microscope droplets of material stuck to its surface like gum on a sidewalk. A computer looks at the chip using a camera. Information from a biochip can be used to learn about differences between genes,cells or drugs. It can also be used to study many other questions about cells. Biochips are also called microarrays, where micro means "small" and an array is any regular grid,such as a chessboard. The droplets on a biochip are laid down in a checkerboard pattern. A square chip five inches (thirteen centimeters) on a side may have 40,000 or more spots on its surface.
The most common kind of biochip is the DNA microarray,also called a gene chip or DNA chip.
In one type of DNA chip,genes - short pieces of DNA that code for single molecules - are placed on the chip. Since even large molecules are too small to see with the naked eye , millions of copies of each gene can be placed on a tiny spot on the chip.
Scientific Foundations :
There are several kinds of DNA chip. This is a simplified explanation of how one kind of DNA chip works. In a DNA chip, each separate spot ( also called a probe ) contains one type of defective gene. To find out if a person has any of these defective genes in their own DNA, DNA is taken from the person's cells. Copy of person's DNA are made, and these copies are labeled, meaning that they include a chemical that glows when ultraviolet light ( which is invisible to the eye ) shines on it. Small drops of liquid containing labeled copies of the person's DNA are then added to the spots on the biochip.
A normal DNA molecule is shaped like a ladder, but the DNA copies being mixed on the biochip are one - sided copies, like a ladder that has been sawed in half lengthwise, cutting every rung in half. When two pieces of one - sided DNA that have matching rungs ( or bases, as they are called ) meet, they lock or zip together. When this happens, the two pieces of DNA are said to hybridize. If the patient's gene match any of the defective genes that have been put on the biochip, they will attach to ( hybridize with ) those defective genes.
The chip is then washed to remove any of the person's DNA that has not found a match on the chip. Finally, the chip is placed in ultraviolet light, and a camera records any spots that glow. These are spots where the labeled copies of the person's DNA have matched up with DNA on the chip.
Examining a patient's DNA for defects is called genetic screening. By using a biochip, genetic screening can be done very quickly - all the tests can be done at once, rather than doing hundreds or even thousands of separate tests.
Genetic screening is only one way of using biochips. Another important use for biochips is to study how genes are used by living cells. Each gene tells the cell how to make a certain protein molecule. Cells read the recipe given by the gene by first making another molecule, mRNA, which copies the information in the gene. The mRNA can then go to a place in a cell that will build the molecule that the genes codes for. The more mRNA a cell has for a gene at a particular time, the more it is said to be "expressing" that gene that is , the more of that particular molecule it is making. Gene expression changes all the time for thousands of genes in every cell.
In the laboratory, scientists can make DNA molecules from the mRNA found in a cell. This matching DNA is called cDNA ( complementary DNA ). If a biochip has all the genes of an organism dotted on its surface, then cDNA made from the mRNA in a cell can attach to ( hybridize with ) the genes on the chip. The more a gene is being expressed in the cell, the more cDNA for that gene there will be, and the more that cDNA will stick to the matching genes on the biochip. Spots with more labeled cDNA will glow more brightly under ultraviolet light. In this way, scientists can literally take a snapshot of how the genes in a cell are being expressed at any one time - how much the cell is making, at that moment, of thousands of different substances. This is extremely useful in trying to understand how cancer cells grow and in many other medical problems.
Development :
The development of biochips begain in the 1990s, when scientists' knowledge of genetics ( the science of DNA ) and computers made biochips practical. To make a biochip, one must have a way of depositing thousands of microscopic droplets on a surface exactly where they need to go. Ways of handling, multiplyin, and reading pieces of DNA are necessary to create biochips, and these techniques were not invented until the 1960s and 1970s.
In 1988, a new company , Affymetrix, decided to combine the methods used to make computer chips with new DNA technologies. Affymetrix's first biochip, a DNA microarray, went on sale in 1996. Today, at least six different companies make a wide variety of biochips
Current Issues :
Biochips are being used today to do DNA screening and to study gene expression in cancer cells, as well as for many other purposes. In 2005, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved a biochip test system called the Amplichip Cytochrome P450 Genotyping Test, made by Roche Molecular Systems, Inc. Cytochrome P450 genes affect how the liver breaks down some drugs. Every person has slightly different P450 genes. The AmpliChip contains different versions of the P450 genes on its surface. DNA from a patient is then added to the chip to see which kinds of P450 genes the patient happens to have. Which P450 genes they have affects how quickly their body breaks down some drugs, including drugs used for depression ( sadness that will not go away) and cancer. Patients whose bodies can break down a drug more quickly may need larger drug doses.
Biochips are having an effect on the study of genes almost a great as the effect computer chips had on computing a few decades ago.
Description :
A biochip is a device that has some of the features of a computer chip but, instead of doing calculations, it uses living cells(or molecules from living cells) to greatly speed up certain laboratory tests.A typical biochip is a glass or plastic chip or tile a few inches on a side. It has hundreds or even tens of thousands of microscope droplets of material stuck to its surface like gum on a sidewalk. A computer looks at the chip using a camera. Information from a biochip can be used to learn about differences between genes,cells or drugs. It can also be used to study many other questions about cells. Biochips are also called microarrays, where micro means "small" and an array is any regular grid,such as a chessboard. The droplets on a biochip are laid down in a checkerboard pattern. A square chip five inches (thirteen centimeters) on a side may have 40,000 or more spots on its surface.
The most common kind of biochip is the DNA microarray,also called a gene chip or DNA chip.
In one type of DNA chip,genes - short pieces of DNA that code for single molecules - are placed on the chip. Since even large molecules are too small to see with the naked eye , millions of copies of each gene can be placed on a tiny spot on the chip.
Scientific Foundations :
There are several kinds of DNA chip. This is a simplified explanation of how one kind of DNA chip works. In a DNA chip, each separate spot ( also called a probe ) contains one type of defective gene. To find out if a person has any of these defective genes in their own DNA, DNA is taken from the person's cells. Copy of person's DNA are made, and these copies are labeled, meaning that they include a chemical that glows when ultraviolet light ( which is invisible to the eye ) shines on it. Small drops of liquid containing labeled copies of the person's DNA are then added to the spots on the biochip.
A normal DNA molecule is shaped like a ladder, but the DNA copies being mixed on the biochip are one - sided copies, like a ladder that has been sawed in half lengthwise, cutting every rung in half. When two pieces of one - sided DNA that have matching rungs ( or bases, as they are called ) meet, they lock or zip together. When this happens, the two pieces of DNA are said to hybridize. If the patient's gene match any of the defective genes that have been put on the biochip, they will attach to ( hybridize with ) those defective genes.
The chip is then washed to remove any of the person's DNA that has not found a match on the chip. Finally, the chip is placed in ultraviolet light, and a camera records any spots that glow. These are spots where the labeled copies of the person's DNA have matched up with DNA on the chip.
Examining a patient's DNA for defects is called genetic screening. By using a biochip, genetic screening can be done very quickly - all the tests can be done at once, rather than doing hundreds or even thousands of separate tests.
Genetic screening is only one way of using biochips. Another important use for biochips is to study how genes are used by living cells. Each gene tells the cell how to make a certain protein molecule. Cells read the recipe given by the gene by first making another molecule, mRNA, which copies the information in the gene. The mRNA can then go to a place in a cell that will build the molecule that the genes codes for. The more mRNA a cell has for a gene at a particular time, the more it is said to be "expressing" that gene that is , the more of that particular molecule it is making. Gene expression changes all the time for thousands of genes in every cell.
In the laboratory, scientists can make DNA molecules from the mRNA found in a cell. This matching DNA is called cDNA ( complementary DNA ). If a biochip has all the genes of an organism dotted on its surface, then cDNA made from the mRNA in a cell can attach to ( hybridize with ) the genes on the chip. The more a gene is being expressed in the cell, the more cDNA for that gene there will be, and the more that cDNA will stick to the matching genes on the biochip. Spots with more labeled cDNA will glow more brightly under ultraviolet light. In this way, scientists can literally take a snapshot of how the genes in a cell are being expressed at any one time - how much the cell is making, at that moment, of thousands of different substances. This is extremely useful in trying to understand how cancer cells grow and in many other medical problems.
Development :
The development of biochips begain in the 1990s, when scientists' knowledge of genetics ( the science of DNA ) and computers made biochips practical. To make a biochip, one must have a way of depositing thousands of microscopic droplets on a surface exactly where they need to go. Ways of handling, multiplyin, and reading pieces of DNA are necessary to create biochips, and these techniques were not invented until the 1960s and 1970s.
In 1988, a new company , Affymetrix, decided to combine the methods used to make computer chips with new DNA technologies. Affymetrix's first biochip, a DNA microarray, went on sale in 1996. Today, at least six different companies make a wide variety of biochips
Current Issues :
Biochips are being used today to do DNA screening and to study gene expression in cancer cells, as well as for many other purposes. In 2005, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved a biochip test system called the Amplichip Cytochrome P450 Genotyping Test, made by Roche Molecular Systems, Inc. Cytochrome P450 genes affect how the liver breaks down some drugs. Every person has slightly different P450 genes. The AmpliChip contains different versions of the P450 genes on its surface. DNA from a patient is then added to the chip to see which kinds of P450 genes the patient happens to have. Which P450 genes they have affects how quickly their body breaks down some drugs, including drugs used for depression ( sadness that will not go away) and cancer. Patients whose bodies can break down a drug more quickly may need larger drug doses.
Biochips are having an effect on the study of genes almost a great as the effect computer chips had on computing a few decades ago.
by nasir at 08-07-2017, 04:05 AM
1 comments
hi all my friends i kindly request you to help me with CTAP procedure to an isolation of Genomic DNA from Marine sample,
Thanks in advance
Thanks in advance
by dikchan at 08-05-2017, 04:26 PM
1 comments
It is to be held on 10 and 11th of August 2017 at gitam University. It's an international conference. Students can also attend the conference by paying some entry fee.
by Lavkeshsharma at 08-04-2017, 11:38 PM
0 comments
Botox
Description:
Botox is a pure form of the botulism toxin called Clostridium botulinum type A.Physicians use it in very small amounts to relax muscle contractions for neurological disorders,such as cerebral palsy, and other disorders with muscle contractions (in which muscles tighten uncontrollably). Originally, it was used for the treatment of crossed eyes.
As a product of allergan,Inc.,it is a cosmetic procedure that has grown in popularity.Cosmetic surgeons inject it under the skin and into muscles to temporarily reduce facial wrinkles. It is used to remove frown lines of the nose and forehead, and wrinkles around the eyes and mouth. Patients typically see results within a week, although longer response times may occur for smaller injections.The injections can be repeated when the effect wears off, usually between three to twelve months.Dosages are kept low because repeat users usually build up an immunity to Botox.Side effects,such as allergic reactions,are rare.Some patients may see some bruising around the injected area. The most common side effect is a headache.
Scientific Foundations:
The C. botulinum toxin is a poisonous bacterium. It can cause paralysis and death when eaten in contaminated food. However, C. botulinum can also heal people when used in a purified form by controlling muscle contractions.
The bacteria and spores of C. botulinum are found in soils of farmlands and forests and sediments of streams,lakes and coastal waters. The spores are also found on fruits and vegetables and in shellfish. The bacteria and spores cannot hurt humans. It is when they grow that the toxin is produced, which is the substance that harms people. There are seven varieties of C. botulinum, designated by the letters A,B,C,D,E,F and G. Types A,B,E,and F cause human botulism, while types C and D cause animal botulism. Type G is found in soil primarily in Argentina but has not yet caused botulism.
Development:
In 1989, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a pure form of the botulism toxin as a medicine called Botox. It treated two types of muscle problems with the eyes. The toxin weakened the muscle but did not affect surrounding muscles. Since, that time, Botox has been used to treat bad muscle posture and tension, muscle spasms of the neck and shoulder, uncontrollable blinking of the eyes, clenching of the jaw muscles, bladder muscle contractions, and nerve disorders.
The American society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reported that 1.6 million treatments of Botox were given in 2001, an increase of 46 percent over 2000. On April 15, 2002, the FDA approved C. botulinum toxin type A for the temporary relief of frown lines between the eyebrows after a scientific study showed that test subjects that used Botox had wrinkles reduce or disappear within thirty days.
Current issues:
The use of Botox concerned many people because it is one of the most poisonous materials known.When it was first introduced in the United States, many people did not like the idea of being injected in the face with poison. However, it also gained support from large numbers of users because it was an easy procedure with quick results. It is also relatively inexpensive when compared to cosmetic surgeries
Scientific studies show that 0.000001 milligram per one kilogram
of body weight will cause death in people half the time. However, according to the Food and Drug Administration, its safety record is very good.
Botox can leak into nearby areas causing temporary weakness of muscles. Around the eye, for example , the problem can cause difficulty in lifting the eyelids or double vision. People who use Botox may develop allergic reaction or immunity to it Injections in the same area may cause the muscle to weaken, what is called dimpling. Botox has been used for many years so its long - term effects are well known. Some patients may develop difficulty in breathing, swallowing, or talking. Pregnant woman should not take Botox because the risks to the foetus are not known.
Problems have occurred when unqualified people inject Botox incorrectly into patients. Many times Botox has been injected in salons, gyms, motel rooms, and other unsanitary areas that may not be safe. The FDA recommends that all Botox treatments be taken in a sterile environment from a physician who is certified in facial cosmetics.
Description:
Botox is a pure form of the botulism toxin called Clostridium botulinum type A.Physicians use it in very small amounts to relax muscle contractions for neurological disorders,such as cerebral palsy, and other disorders with muscle contractions (in which muscles tighten uncontrollably). Originally, it was used for the treatment of crossed eyes.
As a product of allergan,Inc.,it is a cosmetic procedure that has grown in popularity.Cosmetic surgeons inject it under the skin and into muscles to temporarily reduce facial wrinkles. It is used to remove frown lines of the nose and forehead, and wrinkles around the eyes and mouth. Patients typically see results within a week, although longer response times may occur for smaller injections.The injections can be repeated when the effect wears off, usually between three to twelve months.Dosages are kept low because repeat users usually build up an immunity to Botox.Side effects,such as allergic reactions,are rare.Some patients may see some bruising around the injected area. The most common side effect is a headache.
Scientific Foundations:
The C. botulinum toxin is a poisonous bacterium. It can cause paralysis and death when eaten in contaminated food. However, C. botulinum can also heal people when used in a purified form by controlling muscle contractions.
The bacteria and spores of C. botulinum are found in soils of farmlands and forests and sediments of streams,lakes and coastal waters. The spores are also found on fruits and vegetables and in shellfish. The bacteria and spores cannot hurt humans. It is when they grow that the toxin is produced, which is the substance that harms people. There are seven varieties of C. botulinum, designated by the letters A,B,C,D,E,F and G. Types A,B,E,and F cause human botulism, while types C and D cause animal botulism. Type G is found in soil primarily in Argentina but has not yet caused botulism.
Development:
In 1989, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a pure form of the botulism toxin as a medicine called Botox. It treated two types of muscle problems with the eyes. The toxin weakened the muscle but did not affect surrounding muscles. Since, that time, Botox has been used to treat bad muscle posture and tension, muscle spasms of the neck and shoulder, uncontrollable blinking of the eyes, clenching of the jaw muscles, bladder muscle contractions, and nerve disorders.
The American society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reported that 1.6 million treatments of Botox were given in 2001, an increase of 46 percent over 2000. On April 15, 2002, the FDA approved C. botulinum toxin type A for the temporary relief of frown lines between the eyebrows after a scientific study showed that test subjects that used Botox had wrinkles reduce or disappear within thirty days.
Current issues:
The use of Botox concerned many people because it is one of the most poisonous materials known.When it was first introduced in the United States, many people did not like the idea of being injected in the face with poison. However, it also gained support from large numbers of users because it was an easy procedure with quick results. It is also relatively inexpensive when compared to cosmetic surgeries
Scientific studies show that 0.000001 milligram per one kilogram
of body weight will cause death in people half the time. However, according to the Food and Drug Administration, its safety record is very good.
Botox can leak into nearby areas causing temporary weakness of muscles. Around the eye, for example , the problem can cause difficulty in lifting the eyelids or double vision. People who use Botox may develop allergic reaction or immunity to it Injections in the same area may cause the muscle to weaken, what is called dimpling. Botox has been used for many years so its long - term effects are well known. Some patients may develop difficulty in breathing, swallowing, or talking. Pregnant woman should not take Botox because the risks to the foetus are not known.
Problems have occurred when unqualified people inject Botox incorrectly into patients. Many times Botox has been injected in salons, gyms, motel rooms, and other unsanitary areas that may not be safe. The FDA recommends that all Botox treatments be taken in a sterile environment from a physician who is certified in facial cosmetics.
by kamsharma at 08-03-2017, 04:15 PM
21 comments
Pls suggest me best clg for MSc in biotechnology... Coz it's too late now.. plzz
by ekta at 08-02-2017, 04:21 PM
1 comments
I have completed my b.sc biotech but my college were not good enough for study...i want to do any course related to biotechnology for 2 month and i want to do good job also just because of my family conditions..
by Anjali vyas at 07-31-2017, 06:49 PM
2 comments
i m in second year of bsc biotechnology..i want to kw process after bsc third year
by Anjali vyas at 07-31-2017, 06:42 PM
21 comments
hello i m in second year of bsc biotechnology..i want to go for msc. in best college so for dat which entrance exam is preferred for me..
by Shubhangi pandit at 07-31-2017, 05:32 PM
1 comments
Do a diploma course in medical image programming helpful for a btech biotechnology student..??
by Shubhangi pandit at 07-31-2017, 05:31 PM
1 comments
Hello, I am shubhangi and I m doing btech biotechnology from banasthali vidyapeeth university and I went on a training in FRAC,Delhi in my first year and I want to do some training in my second year also so plss suggest me some good institute or companies in noida or greater noida which organise training programs
by dikchan at 07-30-2017, 09:03 PM
1 comments
Im doing btech biotech at Andhra University. It's my 1st year.... Suggest me some good companies in south India to do internship and when can I do it....
by parth at 07-29-2017, 05:48 PM
1 comments
Am in class 11 i want to be a genetic engineer, what exams should i write and which collage i should go pls.....I NEED SOME HELP...PLS GUIDE ME
by parth at 07-29-2017, 05:45 PM
0 comments
Imean that is it just a random metal of ceasium or francium or it has some bonds in it... I want this info for my research in genetics....so pls help
by anuj at 07-29-2017, 06:18 AM
2 comments
Hello sir,
Actually a term paper project have been assingned to me by my faculties. So, basically topic is Pharmacogenomics-in reducing the drug toxicity concerning with genetic variability. So, kindly help me out to find valuable information on it. I will be very thankful to you.
Actually a term paper project have been assingned to me by my faculties. So, basically topic is Pharmacogenomics-in reducing the drug toxicity concerning with genetic variability. So, kindly help me out to find valuable information on it. I will be very thankful to you.
by Saloni Choudhary at 07-27-2017, 09:07 PM
1 comments
I am in 12 can anyone tell about scope in bsc in microbiology
What are jobs scope available in india
Salary
Entrance to write
What are jobs scope available in india
Salary
Entrance to write
by Saloni Choudhary at 07-27-2017, 09:05 PM
0 comments
Hey I am in class 12 wanna do biotechnology mostly inclined to genetic engineering also like microbiology
Can you tell me about these fields in detail sir
Also tell about their scope
And colleges I can apply for
Should I do btech or bsc
Can you tell me about these fields in detail sir
Also tell about their scope
And colleges I can apply for
Should I do btech or bsc
by Saloni Choudhary at 07-27-2017, 08:55 PM
1 comments
Hi I am in class 12 wanna pursue biotech but utterly confused
Can you guide me
I am interested in microbiology
Please tell all about it's career scope and colleges to apply for
Also about salary
And does have good job scope for it
Can you guide me
I am interested in microbiology
Please tell all about it's career scope and colleges to apply for
Also about salary
And does have good job scope for it
by Muskan Gupta at 07-26-2017, 08:19 PM
8 comments
Hey m doing bsc in biotechnology n wants to do MSc in biotechnology n want to appear in cbee BT my subject was not maths in 10th n 12th m I eligible to give exam? If yes then please plzz tell me the syllabus for d exam... [LOUDLY CRYING FACE][LOUDLY CRYING FACE]